Written register: 之, 其, 此, 乃, 亦, 均, 于, 以
The classical function words that live on in modern written Chinese, and the everyday words they replace.
Part of the free C1 Chinese course (about HSK 6 and above). Examples are in Simplified characters, with pinyin only for some new or hard words; press the speaker to hear one with your device's Chinese voice.
Two registers in one language
Modern Chinese has a spoken register (口语) and a written register (书面语). The written register keeps a handful of short function words from Classical Chinese. You meet them in news, notices, contracts, essays and signs, but rarely in conversation. Recognising them is the key to reading anything beyond a chat message.
| Written | Everyday equivalent | Meaning | Typical use |
|---|---|---|---|
| 之 (zhī) | 的 | of, 's | 成功之路, 三分之一, 原因之一 |
| 其 (qí) | 他的, 它的, 他们的 | his, its, their | 及其家人, 其中, 各有其特点 |
| 此 (cǐ) | 这, 这个, 这里 | this, here | 此事, 因此, 此外, 在此 |
| 乃 (nǎi) | 是, 就是 | is, is indeed | 失败乃成功之母 |
| 亦 (yì) | 也 | also | 亦可, 亦是 |
| 均 (jūn) | 都 | all, in every case | 均已, 均可 |
| 于 (yú) | 在, 从, 对, 比 | at, in, from, to, than | 位于, 成立于, 有利于, 高于 |
| 以 (yǐ) | 用, 拿; 为了 | with, by means of; so as to | 以书面形式, 以便, 以免 |
- 该公司成立于一九九八年。The company was founded in 1998.
- 此事与他无关。This matter has nothing to do with him.
- 作者及其家人均住在上海。The author and his family all live in Shanghai.
- 失败乃成功之母。Failure is the mother of success.
- 在校学生亦可报名。Students currently enrolled may also apply.
- 请以书面形式提交申请。Please submit your application in writing.
- 他的收入远高于平均水平。His income is well above average.
How they behave
- 之 links two parts of a noun phrase, mostly in set phrases and four-character patterns: 成功之路 (the road to success), 父母之爱 (parents' love). It does not replace every 的.
- 其 means "his / her / its / their" and also works as an object after 使, 令, 让: 使其明白 (make him understand). It is never a subject on its own.
- 此 takes no 个: 此事, 此人, 此问题. With a formal measure word it is fine: 此项规定.
- 于 sits after a verb or adjective (成立于, 高于, 有利于) or before a time or place (于今年五月).
- 以 + noun + verb = "by means of": 以书面形式提交. 以…为… = "take … as …": 以学生为主.
A sentence usually stays in one register. Two or three of these words make a text sound formal; dropping one into a chat sounds stiff or comic.
For linking words at the same level, see Discourse markers: 总之, 换句话说, 况且, 何况, 反之; for letters and notices, Formal letters and notices: 贵, 敬请, 鉴于, 特此, 此致敬礼, 予以.
Common mistakes
- 我们均去吃饭吧！ sounds absurd → 我们都去吃饭吧！均 belongs to written reports; a casual suggestion needs 都.
其是我的老师。→ 他是我的老师。其 can't be the subject of a modern sentence.他出生于在北京。→ 他出生于北京。于 already means 在: don't use both.我妈妈之车→ 我妈妈的车. 之 is not a general replacement for 的 in everyday phrases.此个问题→ 此问题 or 这个问题. 此 does not take 个.
Practice
- 所有费用_____已付清。Options: 均 · 亦 · 乃
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均 — 均 is the written 都: 均已付清 = all already paid.
- 该公司成立_____二〇〇五年。
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于 — 成立于 + date: 于 is the written 在.
- In everyday speech, 此事 is…Options: 这件事 · 那件事 · 他的事
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这件事 — 此 = 这. In speech the measure word comes back: 这件事.
- Rewrite in written register, replacing 也: 学生也可以报名。
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学生亦可报名 — 亦 = 也, and 可 is the written 可以: 亦可.