Discourse markers: 总之, 换句话说, 况且, 何况, 反之
The words that steer an argument: summing up, rephrasing, adding a reason, contrasting and concluding.
Part of the free C1 Chinese course (about HSK 6 and above). Examples are in Simplified characters, with pinyin only for some new or hard words; press the speaker to hear one with your device's Chinese voice.
Signposts for an argument
At C1, the difference between a list of sentences and an argument is the discourse marker: a word that tells the reader how the next idea relates to the last one.
| Marker | Job | English |
|---|---|---|
| 总之 (zǒngzhī) | sum up | in short, all in all |
| 换句话说 (huàn jù huà shuō) | rephrase | in other words |
| 况且 (kuàngqiě) | add a further reason | besides, moreover |
| 何况 (hékuàng) | the stronger case | let alone; what's more |
| 反之 (fǎnzhī) | the opposite condition | conversely, otherwise |
| 就…而言 (jiù … ér yán) | narrow the topic | as far as … is concerned |
| 由此可见 (yóucǐ kějiàn) | conclude from evidence | from this we can see |
- 总之，这个计划还需要修改。In short, this plan still needs revising.
- 他说最近很忙，换句话说，他不想来。He says he's busy lately; in other words, he doesn't want to come.
- 天已经黑了，况且又下着雨，我们明天再去吧。It's already dark, and besides, it's raining: let's go tomorrow.
- 这道题连老师都答不出来，何况学生呢？Even the teacher can't answer this question, let alone the students.
- 坚持锻炼，身体就会越来越好；反之，就容易生病。Keep exercising and you'll get healthier; otherwise you'll fall ill easily.
- 就价格而言，这款手机很有优势。In terms of price, this phone has a real advantage.
- 他三次考试都是第一名，由此可见他学习很努力。He came top in all three exams, which shows how hard he studies.
况且 or 何况?
Both can add one more reason. Only 何况 does the "even A…, let alone B" pattern: 连 A 都…，何况 B 呢？ It often ends in a rhetorical 呢 (see Rhetorical questions and irony: 难道, 哪儿, 还…呢, 什么…不…的). 况且 just adds a point in a calm, matter-of-fact way.
Where they go
- 总之 and 由此可见 come after the evidence: they close a paragraph.
- 反之 joins two opposite conditions, typically in writing: "if A, then X; 反之 (if not A), Y".
- 就…而言 frames a topic: 就我而言 (as for me), 就经济而言 (economically speaking). 对…而言 is a common alternative.
In speech, 也就是说 and 反正 often do the work of 换句话说 and 总之. The markers in the table are what you need for essays and presentations.
Common mistakes
连老师都不会，况且学生呢？→ 连老师都不会，何况学生呢？Only 何况 makes the "let alone" contrast.我总之迟到。→ 我总是迟到。总之 means "in short"; 总是 means "always".就我而说→ 就我而言 or 对我来说. Don't mix the two patterns.- Opening an essay with 由此可见 before any evidence: the reader asks "from what?".
Practice
- 这道题连老师都不会，_____学生呢？Options: 何况 · 况且 · 总之
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何况 — Only 何况 completes 连…都…, 'let alone'.
- Which marker introduces a conclusion drawn from the evidence just given?Options: 由此可见 · 换句话说 · 况且
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由此可见 — 由此可见 = from this it can be seen.
- _____价格而言，这款手机很便宜。
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就 — 就…而言 and 对…而言 both frame the topic.
- 他说最近很忙，_____，他不想来。Options: 换句话说 · 反之 · 何况
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换句话说 — 换句话说 rephrases what was just said.